一、介词
(一)介词的功能及位置
1.功能
  介词是一种虚词,用来表示名词或相当于名词的其它词语句中其它词的关系,不能单独使用。介词可与名词或相当于名词的其它词构成介词短语。介词短语可在句中作定语,状语,表语和宾语补足语。例如:

The boy over there is John's brother.(定语)
The girl will be back in two hours.(状语)
Our English teacher is from Australia.(表语)
Help yourself to some fish.(宾语补足语)
2.位置
(1)介词放在宾语前
  I get up at six every morning. 我每天早晨六点起床。
  You will see her before long. 你不久就会见到她了。
(2)以下五种情况,介词需放在宾语后
 1)宾语为疑问代词时
  Where do you come from? 你是哪里人?
  What is the boy crying for? 那男孩为什么哭呢?
 2)宾语为关系代词时
  Rice is the food which we Chinese live on. 米是我们中国人的主食。
  That is the man whom we were speaking about. 那就是我们在谈论的人。
 3)当形容词用的不定词之后时
  I have no pen to write with. 我没有笔可写。
  He had enough money to buy a car with. 他有足够的钱买一部车子。
 4)含有介词的动词短语用于被动语态时
  The fact was taken no notice of. 这事实没有引人注意。
  He was laughed at by everybody. 他被大家嘲笑。
 5)为强调宾语,而将宾语倒装至句首时
  His going I have no objection to. 他去我不反对。
  What you say I do not care about. 你说什么我都不在乎。


(二)常用介词的用法辨析
1.表时间的介词
1)at, in on

at 表示时间上的一点, 如时刻、正午等 at six o'clock, at noon, at midnight
in 表示在某个世纪,某年,某月,某个季节以及早晨,上午,下午,晚上等,不很具体的时间 in the nineteenth century, in 2002, in may, in winter, in the morning
on 表示特定的日期或具体某一天的上午,下午,晚上时,用on on Monday, on Sunday morning, on July 1st
[正误实例]
  (1) 他在二月出生。
【误】He was born on February.
【正】He was born in February.
(2) 他出生于1960年11月8日。
【误】He was born in November 8,1960.
【正】He was born on November 8,1960.

2)in, within, after

in
+ 一段时间
与动词的将来时连用, 表示“过一段时间之后” He will be back in two months.
他两个月以后回来。
within
+ 一段时间
(在 ……之内)表示某时间以内。 He will be back within a week.
他将在一星期之内回来。
after
+ 一段时间
与将来时态连用时,后面只能跟表示时间点的词语;与过去时态连用时,后面才能跟表示一段时间的词语。 He will arrive after four o'clock.
他将在四个小时后回来。
He returned after a month.
他一个月以后回来了。
[正误实例]
(1)她一周后回来了。
【误】She came back in a week.
【正】She came back after a week.
(2)她一周后回来。
【误】She will be back after a week.
【正】She will be back in a week.
(3)他将在一星期之内回来。
【误】He will be back after a week.
【正】He will be back within a week.
 

3)until (till), by

until= till 直到 表示时间继续的终点 I shall wait until ten. 我将会等到十点钟。
I didn't meet him until yesterday. 我到昨天才遇见他。
→not...until 或not until 为“到……才”。
by 到……以前 表示动作完成的时限 You must finish it by the end of this week.
到本周末为止你必须完成它。
4)since, from, to
since 自……以来 表示过去继续到现在,
常用于完成时
He has lived here since 1990.
自从1990年起他一直住在这里。
from 自……起 表示起点 Father works hard from morning till night.
父亲从早到晚辛勤工作。
to 至…… 表示终点 He lived in Beijing from 1980 to 1998.
 他自1980年至1998年住在北京。
5)during, for
during 在……期间 其后应接定冠词the during the day在日间;during the night 在夜间
for 表一段时间   I have studied English for two years. 我学习英语已两年了。

2.表示地点的介词
1)at, in, on

at 在 → 表示地方的一点或较小的地方 I met him at the station. 我在车站遇见他。
in 在 → 表示较大的地方或某个范围之内 He arrived in Shanghai yesterday. 他昨天到了上海。
on 在……上面 → 表示与表面接触 There is a map on the wall. 墙上有一幅地图。
[正误实例]
(1)我将在第二站下车。
【误】I shall get off in the second stop.
【正】I shall get off at the second stop.
(2)我在车站遇见他。
【误】I met him in the station.
【正】I met him at the station.
(3)山脚下有口井。
【误】There was a well on the foot of the hill.
【正】There was a well at the foot of the hill.
(4)这条路的尽头有一座新医院。
【误】On the end of the road, there was a new hospital.
【正】At the end of the road, there was a new hospital.
  at的用法 

一般用法

表示场所的一点或极限处
at the shop(在商店) at the end of the street/road (在街道/公路的尽头)
at home(在家) at the top of the hill(在山顶)
at school(在学校“上课”) at the top of the page(在一页的上端)
at the bus-stop(在公共汽车站) at the foot of the hill(在山脚下)
at the cinema (在电影院) at the bottom of the page(在一页的下端)
at the door (在门口) at the centre of(在……的中央)
at my uncle's (在我的叔叔家)  
at a small village(在一个小村子里)  

2)over, above, under, below

over
①超过②在上
表示直上的位置,其反义词是under The roof is over our heads.
屋顶在我们的头顶上。
above在上 表示位置高于但不一定在正上方,反义词是below Eagles fly above the white clouds.
鹰飞于白云之上。
under 在下 表示直下的位置 They are sitting under the tree.
他们正坐在树下。
below 在下 表示位置低于 The fish are below the surface of the water.
鱼在水面之下。
3)across, through
across越过 与on有关,表示动作在某一物体的表面进行 She went across the street.
她走过道路。
through 穿过 与in有关,表示动作是在三维空间进行 The train went through the tunnel.
火车驶过隧道。
along沿着   They walked along the river.
他们沿着河走。
4) in front of, in the front of
in front of 表示“在某人或某物的前面”,在某个范围以外 There are some tall trees in front of the building.
in the front of 表示“在……的前部”,在某个范围以内 The teacher is sitting in the front of the classroom.

(三)介词的固定搭配
  介词往往同其他词类形成了固定搭配关系。记住这种固定搭配关系,才能正确使用介词。
(1)介词与动词的搭配
  listen to, laugh at, get to, look for, wait for, hear from, turn on, turn off, worry about, think of, look after, spend...on...等。
(2)介词与名词的搭配
  on time, in time, by bus, on foot, with pleasure, on one's way to, in trouble, at breakfast, at the end of, in the end等。
(3)介词与形容词的搭配
  be late for, be afraid of, be good at, be interested in, be angry with, be full of, be sorry for等。

二、连词
(一)连词的功能及种类

  用来连接词,短语,从句或句子的词叫连词。连词是一种虚词,在句中不能单独使用。连词可分为两类:并列连词和从属连词。
并列连词
  并列连词用来连接具有并列关系的词,短语或句子。常见的并列连词有:
(1)表并列关系的and, both...and, not only...but also, neither...nor等。
(2)表选择关系的or, either...or等。
(3)表转折关系的but, while等。
(4)表因果关系的for, so等。
从属连词
  从属连词用来引导从句。常见的从属连词有:
(1)引导时间状语从句的after, before, when, while, as, until, till, since, as soon as等。
(2)引导条件状语从句的if, unless等。
(3)引导原因状语从句的because, as, since等。
(4)引导目的状语从句的so that, in order that等。
(5)引导让步状语从句的though, although, even if等。
(6)引导结果状语从句的so that, so...that, such...that等。
(7)引导比较状语从句的than, as...as等。
(8)引导名词从句的that, if, whether等。

(二)主要并列连词的用法
1.and
1)用and连接三个以上的词时,在每个词后面用逗点分开,只在最后一个词前面用and,而and前面也可加逗号,如:A,B,C and D或A,B,C,and D
  He's interested in reading, writing, and arithmetic. 他对阅读、写作和算术感兴趣。
2)and连接的两个词可表示同一人或物:He is a teacher and poet. 他是个教师兼诗人。
3)[祈使句+, and]“如果……,就……”;[祈使句+ , or]“……,否则……”
  Work hard, and you'll succeed. =If you work hard, you'll succeed. 努力工作,你就会成功。
  Work hard, or you will fail. 努力工作,否则你会失败。
  →在此句型中,句意明确时可将动词省略,而以“名词+and”表示。
2.or
1)or连接两个名词或代名词作主词时,动词的数要和最接近的名词或代名词一致:
  You or he is to blame. 你或他应受责备。
  She or her parents are coming here. 她或她父母正要来这儿。
2)[祈使句+or else] “否则”
  Come at once, or it will be too late. 立刻来,否则就太迟了。
  Do your work, or else you will be punished.做你的工作,否则你会受罚。
3.but
(1)but没有“但是”意思的情形
1)Excuse me, but will you lend me a match? 对不起,能借根火柴吗?
2)not... but...“不是……,而是……”
  Not money but wisdom is what we want. 我们所需要的不是金钱而是智慧。
3)She does not play tennis, but ping-pong. 她不打网球,而打乒乓球。
(2)表让步后的强调语气,构成句型:

It is true..., but “纵然,但是” indeed..., but “的确,不过” may..., but “也许,不过”
4.for
  表示“因为”通常前面有逗号。for是表示附加的、推断的理由;而because则表直接的理由或原因:
  I stopped reading because I was tired. 因为很累,所以我停止读书。
  It's morning, for the birds are singing. 不是因为“鸟叫”,所以“就是早晨”,而是把“鸟叫”作为“早晨来临”的判断依据。


(三)主要从属连词的用法
1.表时间的从属连词while, when, as
  这三个连词都可引导时间状语从句,但用法有所不同。
(1)当某事正在进行的时候,又发生了另一件事。While, when, as都可用来引导表示“背景”的时间状语从句。例如:
  As / When / While I was walking down the street I noticed a police car.
(2)当两个长动作同时进行的时候,最常用的是while。例如:
  While mother was cooking lunch, I was doing my homework.
(3)当两个动作都表示发展变化的情况时,最常用的是as。例如:
  As children get older, they become more and more interested in things around them.
(4)当两个短动作同时发生时,或表示“一边……一边……”时,最常用as。例如:
  Just as he caught the fly, he gave a loud cry.
  She looked behind from time to time as she went.
(5)当从句的动作先于主句的动作时,通常用when。例如:
  When he finished his work, he took a short rest.
(6)当从句是瞬间动作,主句是延续性动作时,通常用when。例如:
  When John arrived I was cooking lunch.

2.表理由、原因的从属连词as, because, since, for均表示“因为”的意思,但用法有区别。
(1)如果原因构成句子的最主要部分,一般用because。因此,because引导的从句往往放在句末。例如:
  I stayed at home because it rained.
  -- Why aren't you going?
  -- Because I don't want to.
(2)如果原因已被人们所知,或不如句子的其它部分重要,就用as或since。Since比as稍微正式一点。As和since引导的从句一般放在句子的开头。例如:
  As he wasn't ready, we left without him.
  Since I have no money, I can't buy any food.
(3)for用来补充说明一种理由,因此,for引导的从句几乎可以放在括号里。For引导的句子不放在句子的开头。例如:
  I decided to stop and have lunch -- for I was feeling quite hungry.

3.表结果的从属连词so...that, such...that
(1)so...that中的so是个副词,其后只能跟形容词或副词,而such...that中的such是个形容词,后接名词或名词短语。例如:
  I'm so tired that I can't walk any farther.
  It was such a warm day that he went swimming.
(2) 如果在名词之前有many, much, little, few时,用so不用such。例如:
  He has so little education that he is unable to get a job.

4.表条件的从属连接词if, whether
  if和whether都可作“是否”讲,在引导宾与从句是一般可互换。例如:
  I wonder whether (if) you still study in that school.
  I don't know whether (if) he likes that film.
  在下列情况下,只能用whether,不能用if:
 1)引导主语从句时。例如:Whether he will come to the party is unknown.
 2)引导表语从句时。例如:The question is whether I can pass the exam.
 3) 在不定式前。例如:I haven't made up my mind whether to go there or not.

5.各连接词作主语和动词一致的情形
主语
动词
主语
动词
A as well as B 和A一致

A or B
either A or B
neither A nor
not only A but B

和B一致
A and B
both A and B
复数